Key Concepts of EPSS

Key Concepts of Electronic Performance Support Systems

What is an Electronic Performance Support System?

Two Flavors of EPSS

Attributes and Behavior of Performance Centered Sytems

EPSS: Unlocking Its Potential in Your Organization

What Drives Software Development?

Training when you need it

Communicating Your Way to an EPSS

Driving the Design of EPSS with an Integrated Skills Management System

Breakthrough Thinking on EPSS Teams

Traditional vs. Performance Centered Design

Supporting Human Performance Across Disciplines: A Converging of Roles and Tools

The role of technology in improving performance

What is an Electronic Performance Support System?

By Barry Raybould

Reprinted from Technical & Skills Training February/March 1996

What is an Electronic Performance Support System?

EPSS (Electronic Performance Support Systems) are systems that provide employees with the information, advice and learning experiences they need to get up to speed as quickly as possible and with the minimum of support from other people.

An EPSS also provides the electronic infrastructure that captures, stores and distributes knowledge throughout an organization to enable it to learn faster than its competitors.

The performance support approach is rapidly spreading throughout the professional training community as a alternative approach to training, and is offering a new set of interface design principles for professionals in the human computer interface design community.

Two Flavors of EPSS

By Barry Raybould

Reprinted from Technical & Skills Training February/March 1996

There are two types of EPSS:

Stand alone

Stand alone systems are independent of larger databases or networks of computers that that exist in an organization, but provide workers with information they need to do specific tasks. Some examples:

a trouble shooting EPSS that helps service technicians identify and repair equipment

a human resources EPSS that provides information and advice needed to ensure HR policies comply with applicable laws

an operations EPSS that helps machine operators set up equipment on the factory floor for optimum working conditions

Embedded

In an embedded EPSS, a software application becomes the EPSS. There is no distinction between the performance support system and the software application. The software interface is designed in such a way that it provides the necessary guidance through the work tasks and delivers the appropriate information and advice when, where, and how the worker needs it. In this type of EPSS, the EPSS designer (performance support engineer) and the software developer work closely together to design the software interface. Some examples are:

a system used by customer support representatives that helps them take and track customer orders. The software supports the process by providing a road map of the key steps, with relevant advice and guidance for each step, and provides assistance with searching for answers to questions commonly asked by customers.

a production management manufacturing system to help manufacturing engineers plan and schedule production. The system structures the planning system, providing background conceptual knowledge on key planning concepts integrated with step - by - step instructions for creating a manufacturing schedule.

Attributes and Behavior of Performance Centered Sytems

by Gloria Gery

The Need:

Describing, defining and specifying performance centered systems requires precise language. Evaluating software to determine how performance focused it is requires specific criteria against which to compare the software in question.

The Chart:

This chart, Attributes and Behavior of Performance Centered Systems, summarizes the characteristics of performance centered systems and provides descriptive criteria against which to either specify or evaluate requirements. The attributes themselves are listed in the first column. The 1, 3 and 5 point scale indicates the degree to which these attributes are required or implemented. Level 1 indicates a low level of implementation or representation of the attribute; Level 3 an intermediate degree; and Level 5 a high level of implementation.

Rule of Thumb:

The more of these attributes evidenced by the software and the higher the level of representation of the attribute, the more powerful the software in generating performance.

Using the Chart:

Specification: List the required attributes and the degree to which the attribute should be implemented. When possible use examples from other software to illustrate the characteristics and behavior. Institutionalize the requirements into functional specifications.

Evaluation: Construct a grid listing the attributes and include empty cells for the degree of implementation. Observe the software and how it does or does not reflect the terms in the master chart. Put a rating for the attribute (i.e. 1, 3 or 5). Construct a mathematical average and obtain a quantitative assessment of how performance centered the software is. Add descriptive sentences within the cells to describe the implementation. Cite specific displays, dialogs, systems messages and support resources.

Attribute or Behavior	Low Representation 1	Intermediate Representation 3	High Representation 5
Creates a "big picture". Provides an overall context for the process, work or activity.	Provides little or no visual, graphic, animated or narrative representation of the overall process, deliverables or outcomes. Performer must maintain understanding of context, process and their point in process.	Provides access to extrinsic information about overall process, but maintains little or no context within the interface itself. No context sensitive information about point in process (e.g. "you are here") or summary of prior choices. Performer must maintain process orientation in their head. May employ visual process maps, diagrams, maps, graphs, flowcharts, etc., but no as the primary workspace. Performer must reference these resources as opposed to work in these processes.	Includes explicit and complete representation of the context (e.g. process, equipment, facility) and what will be necessary to complete it within or immediately accessible from primary displays. Rich representation of the work context or process, possibly including multi-media representations. Summarizes previous choices. Includes significant advance organization of expectations, steps, deliverables. In 3-D or virtual representations of the task, equipment, or workspace, performers work within the context.
Establish and maintain a work context.	Not task oriented. Presents itself as "software". Employs technical rather than work language. No task orientation, cueing or structuring. Requires performer to make mental connections between the software and the work context, task or deliverables.	Employs some task language or representative metaphors to establish work context. Low to moderate fidelity to actual work context. May employ some multimedia in metaphors and objects.	Task centered. Employs task language and metaphors to establish a psychological work context. Results in perception or feeling of "doing work" rather than being in "software.
Aid goal establishment.	Performer must generate goals prior to interacting with software; must know options and the relationship between options and goals and where and when to execute them.	Presents either some specific or general goals to stimulate performer interaction from within the interface. May provide detailed information about goals within extrinsic support researches such as manuals, instruction, Help. Goal states may be presented in multimedia objects or models to serve as points of comparison for the performer.	Presents explicit goal options from within primary displays. Employs dialogs (e.g. "What do you want to do...) and presents initial and progressive options for selection Both overall and context specific goal establishment are supported. May provides intrinsic or extrinsic resource to help performer compare and contrast goal options and/or consequences. In rich 3-D or virtual environments, goals and models of desired outcomes might be represented.
Structure work process	Provides little or no overall summary of recommended or possible work process. Any work process information resides in extrinsic or external resource. Performer must initiate all process orientation.	Provides overall and detailed process information in extrinsic or external resources. May summarize results to date in visual or text summary form. May employ some multimedia	Establishes and maintains overall process definition within or immediately accessible from interface. May employee process maps as primary task orientation using button bars, process maps, etc. Cues performer to position in and/or completion of process steps or milestones via differentiating factors such as color. In rich 3-D or virtual environments, performers may be led to the space and images that represent the conditions, problems, requirements, models or examples or demonstrations of best practice.
Structure progression through tasks and logic	Depends on performer to generate and structure task requirements and progression through proper task sequence. No system initiated task sequencing or presentation of relevant data or tools. Rules and relationships reside in performer memory or must be accessed from extrinsic or external resource before and during task progression.	Provides some task structuring -- most often in the form of information contained in extrinsic resources (e.g. procedures, demonstrations, process maps). Employs menu structures for task structuring, but performer must generate sequence. Irrelevant options may be dimmed on menus, lists, etc. May actively present guidance or suggestions. May employ some multimedia.	Following goal establishment the system structures task requirements in proper or best known task or process sequence from within the interface. Guides performer through appropriate options, choices, inputs. Filters irrelevant steps or options out. Via edits, models and examples observation and advice, does not permit wasted activities or inappropriate sequencing that will result in cycle repetition or dead ends. Presents relevant data and powerful representations of data, conditions, equipment, etc. at appropriate times during task sequence. Performer led to successful task completion or deliverable creation. All aspects of work are supported including job task, system interaction, cognitive and verbal tasks are supported. Provides on-demand access to overall process or sequence information within extrinsic resources (e.g. procedures, process maps, coaches or demos) In rich 3-D or virtual environments, performers are presented with more robust representations of the data, conditions, examples,. or external knowledge resources.
Reinforce and link activity to business strategy	No implicit or explicit content, functionality, advice or process reinforces or links to organizational strategy. Any relationship between behavior and strategy must be constructed by the performer.	Loose or indirect reference to strategy is based in optional activities or is referred to in extrinsic support system content. Business rules into system logic relate primarily to data manipulation, transformation and representation -- not business practice or standard operating policy. When business strategy is incorporated into system logic it remains stable between major system releases.	Business or organizational strategy and goals are reinforced through advice, options, or underlying logic which incorporates business rules expected to produce strategic results. Responsible parties alter system logic to reflect new strategy or business goals as it is changed. Strategic information is available within extrinsic resources.
Institutionalize current best approach.	Interaction and process are data driven. If tasks are supported from within the display or described in extrinsic resource, the approach is frozen in time as of the construction date. No changes are made other than during major release changes or revisions. Content may be very discrepant with current known information or process.	Business task, content, data, process or rule changes are distributed to performers in analog or electronic announcements, meetings, and informally. Changes are not institutionalized within the applications, except via major system version changes. Time lags exist between surfacing of change needs and performers incorporating those changes into their behavior. Individual performance changes are a function of the performer receiving and incorporating the changes into their behavior without structure or guidance from the application.	Support for task progression or cognitive processing reflects most current and best known approach or content. Task sequence, content, data, rules and tools are continuously updated and dynamic. Individual learning systematically feeds the system to translate current experience and learnings into organizational practice. Responsible parties alter system logic to reflect new knowledge. Performers have ongoing interaction with experts via Groupware, forums, or bulletin boards. Computer supported collaborative work is actively employed and encouraged or required via context sensitive links and communications to appropriate people when limited resource o content is available to support processing, creative or knowledge development. In rich multimedia, 3-D or virtual environments progression is through more realistic space with powerful models and examples, etc.
Reflect natural work situations.	Interface language, metaphors, behaviors or options bear little or no relationship to the real work, world or performer expectations or experience. Performers must adjust the way they think, interact and behave to system requirements. How to approach work requirements is not immediately obvious from within the interface.	Partial match between interface and natural work situations. Gaps exist in language, appropriateness of the metaphors to situation or task, sequence or other elements. May employ some multimedia.	Language, metaphors, behaviors, options, process, sequences and deliverables conform to the way people communicate, interact, observe and behave. Reality is modeled with multimedia, 3-D or virtual representations of space, equipment, conditions and data. Communication and interaction is concrete, colloquial, obvious and natural. The match between work and the system is very close and approach and options are obvious.
Use metaphors and direct manipulation of variables to capitalize on prior learning and physical reality.	Displays and content are data driven and use little or no visual representation or metaphors. Performers must transform requirements into system terms employing abstractions, codes or commands.	Some use of metaphors, visualization or direct manipulation. Metaphorical or visual content more likely to be resident in extrinsic resources rather than in primary displays. May employ some multimedia.	Extensive use of metaphors and visual representation to construct familiar realities and capitalize on prior learning. Direct manipulation of objects employed to where physical movement of data, visual structures, etc. match real-world tasks. Performers feel they are working in "real" vs. abstracted space. The most advanced environments employ multimedia, 3-D or virtual metaphorical space, objects and permit direct and powerful manipulation of situational variables.
Provide alternative views of the application interface	One size fits all interface. No options for more or less structure, alternative mode, interaction type, or navigation. Performer diversity results in some feeling inadequate and others feeling patronized or spoon fed (i.e. little or too much structure).	Alternative interface possible for some or all tasks or for limited differences in amount of structure (e.g. some use of Wizards or Helpers vs. command or menu-based interaction; or primary use of Wizard structure with some key stroke bypass options. May employ animations or sound.	Two or more alternative interfaces presenting broad range of structure and freedom. Alternatives may be based on different interaction modes (e.g. blank page vs. templates vs. wizards/assistants), customization options or expanded or collapsed view of the interface controlled by performer. Alternate interfaces may include alternative media representations (e.g. visual, 3-D or virtual versions of the workspace, objects, data, etc.
Provide alternative views of the support resources	Support resources represented primarily in text mode with limited or no use of other media, content organization or knowledge representation.	Some use of alternative knowledge representation within extrinsic support resources or in primary displays. May employ some media beyond text and simple visual objects or animations.	Rich and varied views of content and knowledge. Use of multiple knowledge representation (e.g. textual procedure and demonstration and voice-narrated demonstration). Advanced applications employ multimedia, 3-D and/or virtual knowledge representation within the interface to represent conditions, options, etc. -- or within the extrinsic or external support resources.
Observe performer actions and data.	Observation of performer actions limited to edits of entered data.	Systems sense some performer, data, physical, environmental, equipment or system states and provides context-sensitive information. The more "sensitive" the system, the more powerful the support.	Observes and notes performer context, prior decisions, physical interaction with system (e.g. mouse position, time delays, previous choices). Observes relationships between performer, context, task, data and goals. May employ visual, 3-D or virtual representations of resources tightly linked to state, data or user conditions or preferences.
Provide contextual feedback.	Feedback is either generic, vague or non-existent; not linked to context, performer actions, system behavior or data.	Feedback may be linked to one or more elements (e.g. data, point in process.)	Rich, varied, explicit and continuous feedback related to performer actions, data, task requirements, performer attributes. Anticipates performer requirements and communicates actively about states, conditions, results, requirements or options. May appear "intelligent". Feedback may employ rich visual, auditory, 3-D or virtual feedback about conditions, data, alternatives, etc.
Advise.	Provides no task or conditional advice in either primary displays or extrinsic resource.	May provide advice through extrinsic support resource or through Advisor components invoked by the performer. Advisors may employ media beyond text.	Ongoing, dynamic, rich and explicit system or performer -initiated advice. Observes and monitors data, time, options or performer behavior and provides conditional, rule-based or "learned" advice. Advice may be information or directive. Advice may include multimedia representations, examples, guidance, demonstrations, practice exercises, etc.
Shows evidence of work progression	Performer must maintain conscious understanding of what has been done, choices made and consequences and relationships.	System presents some evidence on all task progression or conditions or limited/in-depth evidence (e.g. images, time bars, narrative descriptions) of accumulated choices and system-generated outcomes. Some multimedia may be employed.	System presents rich, continuous and in-depth evidence on all task progression or conditions or limited/in-depth evidence (e.g. images, time bars, narrative descriptions) of accumulated choices and system-generated outcomes. Task progression may be represented with multimedia, 3-D or virtual representations to provide clear understanding of rules, relationships, conditions, outcomes, deliverables, etc.
Provide support resources without breaking the task context.	Support resources are external to the system and require a complete context change (e.g. signing off system and accessing on-line resource -- or suspending interaction with the system to access manuals, training or peer resource. Accessing support resource requires significant effort and/or time away from task. Often, the effort required is greater than the payoff due to gaps between resource content and performer needs.	Support resources within HELP or Searchable Reference, but may not be context-sensitive in any or all cases. Performers are clearly in another space when working with support resources (e.g. they are "in a training module). Accessing resource often breaks the task or thought context. Knowledge may be represented in limited ways that are not faithful to the task of physical workspace or equipment. Consequently, performers must reconceptualize, transform or cognitively manipulate the content due to low fidelity content representation, thereby breaking their task context.	Context-sensitive access to support resources. Support is organized in granular structures or is written and displayed to conform to other system display conventions. Sufficient support is embedded within or immediately accessible from primary displays. Resources overlay the application or can be sized or minimized. While momentary shifts between task performance and use of extrinsic resources, context breaks are minor . Rich multimedia, multi-sensory, 3-D or virtual representations of knowledge are available as primary or alternative resources. Representation permit maintenance of task context because of high fidelity knowledge representation.
Contain embedded knowledge in the interface	Any available knowledge resides in extrinsic resources.	Some directions, explanations or visualizations are in primary displays. Rich and complete knowledge is included in extrinsic resources. Some multimedia may be employed.	Extensive and rich knowledge is contained in primary displays. Next steps are expressed or demonstrated. Content may be displayed in multiple forms (e.g. words and images). Examples, instructions and guidance may be represented with multimedia, 3-D or virtual reality.
Business knowledge available in support resources and system logic.	Business knowledge is entirely external to the system and/or must be known by the performer prior to interacting with the software.	Business knowledge resides primarily in extrinsic resources. May or may not be rich knowledge representation. Business knowledge typically must be learned by the performer in advance (possibly just in time) and then applied to the task at hand. Some multimedia may be employed.	Business knowledge and rules incorporated into embedded knowledge in displays or underlying system or programming logic. Rules and relationships between data, tasks, goals, rules, concepts, requirements, etc. are tightly coupled and explicit. Learning about the work or process is tightly coupled with doing and is often a consequence rather than a pre-condition of performance. Rules and relationships and data may employ multimedia , 3-D or virtual representations.
System information contained in support resources	Help or other extrinsic resource is either limited in content or of inadequate quality.	Information about procedures, system structure and mental models, requirements, options, etc. contained in support resources. Typically organized in hierarchical structure. Not context sensitive. Must be invoked by performer (who must know that they need help, how to phrase their request, and how to execute their request). Some multimedia may be employed.	Information on the system, procedures, etc. tightly coupled to task context and available for context-sensitive access. Knowledge representation is rich and complete and may employ multimedia, 3-D or virtual representations.
Provide alternative knowledge search and navigation mechanisms.	One size fits all navigation (e.g. index or table of contents access; keyword search access).	More than one search and navigation mechanism provided. May include context sensitive access to some resources.	Numerous search and navigation options available including hypertext, indexing, keyword search, context sensitive links, "sounds like" queries, browsing, VRML etc. Users may "browse", be guided, or directed through the content, data, space or objects. May employ agents for searching, coaching, assessing, etc.
Layered.	Single view of interface, content or information. What you see is what you get...	May provide layering via hypertext or hypermedia links within extrinsic resources.	Multiple levels of content, forms, interaction methods, feedback, advice, etc. provided to accommodate performer diversity in prior knowledge, goals, motivation, available time, and style.
Provide access to underlying logic.	The system presents its advice or executes tasks in response to tasks.	May provide explanations of logic, rules or representation of decision tree structure when requested by the performer. Content most probably static and in extrinsic resources. Some multimedia may be employed.	Rich, dynamic and context sensitive access to system and/or business logic and rationale.. May be presented by the system (e.g. Here is the thinking behind my recommendation...) or invoked. The "thinking" may be presented via multimedia agents, including video and sound images presenting content, advice or experience of high level performers. May provide direct interaction with expert resource via videoconferencing, audio conferencing, chat lines, Groupware, etc.
Automates tasks.	Most tasks must be structured by the performer. Proper sequence must be established and implemented. Some tasks must be performed externally to the software (e.g. data access, calculations, data manipulation, etc.)	Some tasks are automated or the performer can automate them via macros. Most task automation relates to data access, transformation and representation, rather than supporting workflow, thinking and/or human interaction.	High task automation including data, cognitive and judgment tasks. Processing may be rule or case-based. Performer needs are anticipated and automatically presented for acceptance or dismissal or are executed.
Allow customization	One size fits all displays, interaction modes, task sequence progression established by system designers. Little or no performer control.	Some customization options, primarily around display settings, keyboard, menu labels or lower level interaction behavior (e.g. "confirm changes" before executing).	Significant customization options around displays, task sequences, language and system behavior. Alternative settings are available from multiple contexts (e.g. options displays, check boxes within dialog boxes, layered buttons on displays). Performers can change options for the task or document or establish as new defaults. Settings and options summaries can be accessed for evaluation and change. Explanations, illustrations or demonstrations of consequences of alternative summaries are presented as options are explored. Performers may select among media representations, if available.
Provide obvious options, next steps, and resources.	Performers must know options, steps and resources in advance or access them from extrinsic resources prior to task performance.	Some options, next steps or resources are displayed in obvious ways within the interface or via buttons with clear labels. Some multimedia may be employed.	What to do next or available resources are always prominently displayed and are clear (e.g. Show me or Tell me about or Do it... buttons)
Employ consistent use of visual conventions, language, visual positioning, navigation and other system behavior.	Labels, display attributes, positioning or navigation conventions are inconsistent and possibly in conflict. Expectations cannot be established based on prior displays/system behavior.	Gaps may exist is language, positioning or behavior. System displays conform largely to platform standards.	Once established, language, navigation, displays, interaction methods and system behavior are consistent. Performers experience in one context establishes expectations that are always met in other displays, tasks or contexts.

EPSS: Unlocking Its Potential in Your Organization

Barry Raybould

Ariel Performance Support Engineering, Inc.

Reprinted From Technical & Skills Training February/ March 1996

Electronic Performance Support Systems are making inroads into office and manufacturing environments - hot on the heels of the computer revolution. The author's bullet-by-bullet account explains how electronic performance support can fulfill essential computer training needs.

Recent years have seen an accelerating interest in performance support as an alternative to traditional training in technical environments. Not surprisingly, the range of electronic performance support technologies is broadening in line with the increasing use of computers at home and work. This article takes a look at the major technologies you should consider now before embarking on a performance support project, as well as some examples of these technologies in action.

There are a number of good reasons why a performance support approach is becoming increasingly attractive. To name a few:

The American work force is suffering from information overload. Indeed, the total volume of business information, said to be doubling every two to three years, is growing exponentially.

The traditional training approach is not working for many organizations. Some industry pundits estimate that as much as half of the $50 billion that American corporations spend on formal training is wasted. A growing body of educational research concludes that learning is far more effective when it takes place in context of work. And many organizations report that only 10 to 15 percent of what employees know was learned in formal training.

Business change is accelerating as business process reengineering and the resulting job redesigns are becoming a regular part of business life.

How can electronic performance support technologies aid in countering these prevailing trends? Teamed with the now ubiquitous personal computer, performance support can do the following:

Reduce information overload by relying less on long -term memory and more on-the-job support in the form of tools that help structure the work and integrate the necessary reference materials. These tools could be linked to software at a desktop or workstation computer, or be conveyed by mobile hand-held electronic devices to shop floor workers.

Provide on-the-job learning experiences using software. By embedding presentations of key concepts into frequently used software, EPSS can create a seamless mix of learning and performance.

Increase organizational learning by providing a mechanism for capturing and disseminating organizational knowledge. For example, you can create a database of problems and the resulting solutions developed by technical support personal or technicians, and use it to spread troubleshooting expertise throughout the organization.

"Enabling" Technologies

Several technology trends are making the shift toward performance support easier to implement. Here are some of the key enabling technologies:

Hypertext: This technology provides for the electronic linking of information that provides a flexible approach to disseminating large volumes of cross-reference material - often called an "information base" in EPSS terminology. It is particularly useful when combined with such text retrieval technologies as "key-word" searches (i.e., the author links important words that the worker may want to use to retrieve some small chunk of knowledge), or full-text searches (i.e., the EPSS searches4very word in its information base to match a word typed by the worker). The new version of Windows '95 integrates both of these technologies into its help systems. These tools are available to software developers in order to help build the information bases of an EPSS. There is also a wide range of other software tools on the market that provide this capability.

The Internet: The Internet as a whole and the World Wide Web in particular are opening up new EPSS opportunities, especially for distribution organizations made up of field service technicians and company sales forces. The Web, for all its hype, is not much more than a large information base, where chunks of information are distributed across thousands of computers across the world and are available to anyone with a computer, modem, and an on-line account.

It is possible, however, to create private information bases that restrict access to members and customers of your organization, using the same publishing technologies. Internet publishing is based around a standard called HTML (hypertext markup language). By using this standard, organizations can harness electronic data exchange to more easily distribute an EPSS directly to their customer base. Doing so could, for example, allow customers to do their own troubleshooting before calling a service representative.

CD-ROM: Another way of distributing an EPSS, CD-ROM can be used either as an alternative to, or in conjunction with, the World Wide Web. CD-ROM becomes a desirable option when workers don't have access to an Internet connection or when the information base contains a large amount of graphics, sound, or video.

Portable Devices: A steady drop in prices is making portable devices increasingly affordable. These include laptop and notepad computers as well as hand-held devices like the Apple Newton. Some of these hand-helds now have built in CD-ROM with sound - making them an excellent delivery vehicle for an "on - the - go" EPSS. If you're designing a system now, the cost of these devices is sure to come down by the time you are ready to deploy the system, based on the history of price reduction in these devices.

Intelligent Technologies

An essential attribute of an EPSS is to augment the human problem-solving process by automating some of the more routine reasoning processes. Here are some technologies being used In performance support applications:

Visual programming languages: Visual programming languages have made considerable strides over the past few years. These languages let you build an EPSS using an approach called "rapid prototyping" in which you iteratively develop the EPSS to meet workers needs.

Object-oriented languages: Object-oriented program languages let you build software that behaves more intelligently.

Rule-based knowledge systems: This technology lets you present knowledge as a series of "if then" rules, which the computer will use to help recommend decisions or make selections. This technology, also known as an "expert system", has been heavily refined over the past two decades, and there are established methodologies or building these rule bases.

Case-based reasoning: This approach involves creating a database of case studies or examples of problems and their associated solutions. It also provides tools to search the database to match a current problem with a previous example. In this way, past history and the accumulated expertise of others in an organization can be preserved and retrieved to help solve new problems as they arise.

Neural networks: This technology helps you analyze patterns in data, and use these patterns to predict future behavior.

Model-based systems: These tools let you build a model of a physical system, then use the model to simulate various scenarios and diagnose problems.

Emerging Methodology

A recent trend is the establishment of cross-functional groups within companies to develop performance support systems. Accompanying this move is a merging of professional disciplines. Among the new titles appearing on business cards are "performance support specialist", "performance support developer" and "performance support manager" - terms that are replacing "instructional designer" or "training manager."

What does this signify? An emerging new discipline which I call "performance support engineering." Here are some of the key characteristics of this new discipline:

Hybrid Methodology: Because the scope of performance support is broad, The methodology for its development is broader than for many existing disciplines. Performance support engineering is in fact a hybrid approach that includes elements of information and systems engineering, computer / human interaction and interface design, business process reengineering, instructional systems development, computer based training, human performance technology, organizational design, knowledge engineering, and technical writing.

Systems approach: Just as in software engineering, all parts of the EPSS have to be designed to work as an integrated whole. These parts include not only the interface of the EPSS but also the accompanying human performance system. Indeed, one of the most important steps in designing an EPSS is to build a systems model of the business from a human performance perspective.

Iterative software development: Building an EPSS often calls for writing custom software - except in the simplest systems where an off-the-shelf "shell" will suffice. The best software development approach is an iterative one that starts with a prototype and is continually refined to achieve a final systems design - preferably with in put from the workers who will eventually use the system.

Knowledge focus: Traditional software engineering has a strong data focus. Much of the power of performance support arises from its focus on knowledge. Key components of a performance support system, therefore, are a system and set of processes to manage the capture and dissemination of knowledge - often referred to as a knowledge management system.

Identifying Opportunities

How do you identify opportunities in your organization for electronic performance support? Here are four things to look for, each of which presents a major opportunity for EPSS:

Performance Problem: Is there a performance problem in your organization? Is there a gap between the best and worst job performers? Do employees at different locations have different degrees of access to knowledge? Are training courses and documentation not improving performance enough? Are employees suffering from information overload? Are employee turnover or fast changing job requirements resulting in inadequate performance levels? A "yes"" to any of these would indicate an opportunity for EPSS to help improve performance.

Business reengineering project: Is your company involved in a business reengineering project? If so, and you're not already designing performance support into your new business processes, you risk losing a major competitive advantage. Get a performance support engineer involved in the reengineering team, identify key knowledge assets in the business, and engineer the business processes to leverage those knowledge assets using a performance-centered design approach.

Computer - based training project: Are you building computer - based training (CBT) or multimedia - based training? If you are, have you considered the benefits of integrating the CBT into a performance support framework? Doing so gives you a double benefit: You can use the training modules you build both as a learning tool and as a reference tool.

On - line documentation / CD-ROM: Are you putting documentation on-line (e.g., on the Web) or planning to distribute it on CD-ROM? If you are, consider restructuring the documentation in the form of a performance support system. Reading documentation on-line is 30 percent slower than on paper, so if you don't tailor it to electronic media you risk making the performance problem worse, not better. Using hypertext, intelligent technologies, and visual programming language, you can turn your documentation into a much more powerful performance support system.

What Drives Software Development?

by Gloria Gery

A Comparison of Large Scale Systems and Consumer Software Development

The Need:

The assumptions underlying large scale software development are implicit and are rarely questioned. Those underlying assumptions drive development and design, including definition of the performer population and description of their work context. The assumptions must be made explicit so they can be discussed and either validated or changed.

The Chart:

The assumptions underlying consumer software development are quite different. And because those assumptions are so different, they drive a different design and development process. What Drives Software Development? A Comparison of Consumer vs. Large Scale Systems Development is designed to make these two differing sets of assumptions explicit so they can be compared and contrasted as part of the specification development process. The drivers for consumer software need to be adopted by large scale systems developers to improve the quality and power of software developed for organizational use.

Using the Chart:

Use the chart or components in proposals, functional specifications and presentations advocating performance centered design. Force open discussion about the design assumptions.

Rule of Thumb:

Developers and sponsors of new systems development have given little thought to these underlying assumptions and thinking in new ways must be facilitated.

Points of Comparison	Large Scale Systems	Consumer Software
Assumptions about users' and workplace knowledge:	Users will know the work and related concepts the software will be part of or support Knowledgeable people will be available Users will be trained prior to software use	Users will know limited interface conventions (e.g. use of buttons) Users will not know content or task Knowledgeable people unavailable Training is unlikely
Development priorities:	Bug free code. High integrity data Accurate data transformation Machine performance. Matched to contracted client specifications (i.e. the client who pays the development or acquisition bills). Architectural compatibility. Operational performance. On-time delivery. Delivery within budget System maintainability	Impact on task performance: making work easier, faster, better Market acceptability Great word of mouth Glowing product reviews by press No implementation and training costs: Day One Performance Negligible support requirements Time to market Bug free code Reuse of code Executable on installed hardware base or demonstrate such value that people will upgrade hardware to run software. Maintainability
Implementation times Performance expectations	Short to moderate for initial implementation Gradual utilization over time	Immediate implementation Immediate performance outcomes
Assumed User Characteristics	Compliant to management directives Captive. Cannot reject the software for an alternative Resigned to difficult systems environments. Grateful for any improvements Prefer on-time availability to usability and performance impact Data driven Willing and able to invest in learning Not influential in the marketplace Long term job tenure (past and future)	Time urgent Impatient Results oriented Can reject software for marketplace alternatives or can return to non-automated task performance Influential in the marketplace Who will use the software will change over time; high user turnover or new user populations emerging
Design Goals	Conform to known standards (e.g. Windows-compliant) Reflect current work processes Similar to current systems and work requirements requiring only incremental change. Very different from the present is not a good thing.	Killer application with unique attributes and behavior. Fundamentally alters how work is done. High payoff Day One Performance by novice workers Seductive and compelling to users. Create energy. Demand pull.
Measurements and Rewards based on:	On-time delivery Development costs Functionality meeting expressed customer requirements. Technological superiority System response time	Consumer (i.e. performer) acceptability and mindshare Innovation Impact on efficiency, effectiveness, value-added or business strategy Profitability
Not accountable for:	Costs of implementation and ongoing support Impact on results or business strategy User satisfaction.	Open marketplace makes vendors accountable for all consequences

Training when you need it

Once the domain of commercial apps, performance-centered design is starting to have a positive impact on system training

By Ed Foster

Instead of struggling to train your corporate staff to use your mission-critical applications, why not have the application help teach the users to perform their jobs?

That is the idea behind performance-centered design, an approach many corporations are adopting for their in-house application development. Performance-centered design and the related term of Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) for the applications themselves are concepts that have come out of the training community in response to the frustration many users and managers feel over traditional computer training.

Performance-centered design and EPSS try to build enough knowledge resources and intelligence into the interface and basic structure of an application to make it possible for users to teach themselves.

"Performance-centered design is basically an evolution from user-centered design, making software easier to use," says Barry Raybould, president of Ariel Performance Centered Systems, in Irving, Texas, and one of the pioneers of performance-centered design. "It focuses on helping users do the work by embedding knowledge as well as a variety of software tools into a single-user interface."

That, of course, is easier said than done. But the potential business benefits of successfully implementing even one fairly minor task are enough to attract a lot of corporate interest.

"We initially looked at a few tasks such as setting up a bank authorization for a regular withdrawal from a customer's bank account," says Betty Mackay, training director for American Express Financial Advisers Division, in Minneapolis. "That's a task that would normally take an experienced user from 3 to 6 minutes to complete, but it's one that would take 9 to 12 hours of training to teach. And then it takes months of practice time before the user is reasonably competent to do it on their own. Replicate that over a number of different tasks, and it's not just a training problem, it's a significant business problem."

Mackay and her colleagues developed pilot applications for several of her division's call-center functions, including the bank authorization task, testing them with both experienced and inexperienced users.

"Previously, using our existing mainframe system, new employees could complete the bank authorization in an average of 17.1 minutes after 12 hours of training," Mackay says. "After 2 hours of training with the pilot application, they could do it in 3.9 minutes. Experienced users got better as well, improving from an average 4.8 to 3.2 minutes."

ROOTS IN COMMERCIAL SOFTWARE. Although this may sound like magic, the interface tools employed by performance-centered design are actually quite familiar to users of modern GUI-based commercial applications. In fact, commercial applications that would qualify as EPSS applications existed before the term.

"Developers in the consumer market have long been driven by performance-oriented thinking, because they can't presume that a discretionary user is going to have been trained to use their product," says Gloria Gery, a corporate consultant in Tolland, Mass., and the person who gets credit for coining the EPSS term with her 1991 book Electronic Performance Support Systems. "A discretionary user just won't buy your product if it requires training -- it's only in the corporate environment, with the history of IS departments in the mainframe days thinking of their users as captive, that you get the assumption of mandatory training."

Gery points to Intuit's Quicken and TurboTax as applications that have long incorporated the basic principles of an EPSS.

"For example, as TurboTax works you through an activity, you can work in the forms themselves or in an interview mode that mimics an interview with a tax accountant," Gery says. "If you come to something you are not familiar with -- depreciation, say -- you'll have some content links such as clicking on a word to get a definition, a button to pull up the relevant IRS rules, or a depreciation calculator."

Recent interface innovations in productivity applications such as wizards, coaches, and cue cards are also part of the performance-centered design toolbox. Some of these innovations are the direct result of ideas that Gery and others in the performance-support movement have been promoting.

"What's really been happening is that a group of people put a name to something that was already happening in the industry," Raybould says. "A number of developers have been using the principles without actually being conscious of it, but many others were consciously adopting the concepts being discussed in the performance-support community."

PUTTING HELP IN THE RIGHT CONTEXT. Performance-centered design means more than using wizards, though. The real trick is to integrate the help systems into the basic structure of the application so that users